Chapter 13: The Economy and Politics

The economy is what shows neighboring countries what kind of country it is. Economy is what shows people how developed and how powerful a nation is. Politics are what all countries have in order to keep peace and to have authority over the people. Politics are anything that has to do with the government that contain power.

To satisfy people's needs and wants, every society develops a system of roles and norms that governs the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. This is called the economic institution. The factors of production are resources needed to produce goods and services which include the land, labor, capital, and entrepreneurship. The primary sector deals wsecondary sector concentrates on the use of raw materials to manufacture goods. The tertiary sector shifts to providing services. In Preindustrial societies, there is very little technological development. In Industrial societies, the main emphasis in the economy shifts from the primary sector to secondary. Postindustrial societies, the tertiary sector is the most important. In capitalism the factors of production are owned by the individuals rather than by the government. Law of supply states that producers will supply more products when they can charge higher prices and fewer products when they must charge lower prices. Law of demand states that consumers will demand more of a product as the price of the product decreases. If government interference is kept to a minimum and if competition is restricted, the invisible hand of market forces will keep the economy in balance, sometimes known as laissez-faire capitalism. The commitment to limited government control of business operations has resulted in the labeling of capitalist economies as free-enterprise systems. In socialism, the factors of production are owned by the government, which regulates economic activity. Communism is a political and economic system in which property is communally owned. Totalitarianism: those in power exercise complete authority over the lives of individual citizens. Both have changed over time; capitalism has changed for the USA is capitalist but it uses programs that are socialist in nature and socialism collapsed. Corporation is a business organization that is owned by stockholders and is treated by law as if it were an individual person. Oligopoly is the market situation in which a few large companies control an industry. Protectionism is the use of trade barriers to protect domestic manufacturers from foreign competition. Free-trade is trade that is not restricted by trade barriers between countries. Multinational is any corporation that has factories and offices in several countries. The nature of work has shifted from an industrial base to a service base. E-commerce is business conducted over the internet. Recently in the USA the economy has gone down considerably, the national debt is worse than it has ever been in the past and this is because of the current president. $16,805,913,562,515.19 is the debt now in the USA.

ith the extraction of raw materials from the environment. The

Power is the ability to control the behavior of others with or without their consent. State is the primarily political authority in society. Political Institution is the system of roles and norms that govern the distribution and exercise the power of society. Functionalist view is to analyze political institutions in terms of functions of the state, creation of laws, settling conflicts with individuals and relations with other countries. Conflict theorist view is how the political institution brings social change. Different groups in society compete for power. Legitimacy is whether those in power have the right to govern others. Max Weber referred to legitimate power as authority. Coercion is power that is considered illegitimate by the people governed. Traditional authority is power based on a long standing custom. Rational legal authorities are rules and regulations that outline the rights and obligations of those in power. Charismatic authority is based on the personal characteristics of the individual in power. Political Parties are organizations that seek to gain power through legitimate means. Proportional representation ensures that minority parties receive a voice in the government. Interest Group is an organization that attempts to influence the political decision making process. Voter participation is the heart of the democratic process. Voter Participation varies among different groups of Americans. Race, education, employment and age are factors that affect voting. The Power-elite model was first presented by C. Wright Mills and states that political power is exercised by and for the privileged few in society. The Pluralist model states that the political process is controlled by interest groups that compete one another for power.

As we can see economy is a huge factor for societies. If the economy is down, this shows that the country is not well, if it is high the country appears high. Politics can range from well behaved people to lesser behaved people. Some politics are good and others are bad. But a society needs politics in order to thrive. 

Chapter 15: Science and Mass Media

Science and mass media are two major things that influence society today. Science keeps getting better and smarter. And because science gets better so does the mass media. The mass media grows based off of the growth of scientific discovery.

Birth of science in Europe started in 300BC in Greece. Started with math, physics, astronomy, and biology/medicine. After the fall of Rome the Catholic Church and the economy silenced the scientific search. The Re-birth started with the renaissance. It was the start of the scientific method. The re-birth gained power after the 1800s with the industrialization. Modern science is composed of multiple branches and specialties. Norms are expected to be followed. It has a scientific community to ensure norms were followed during experiment before being accepted Scientific research norms are the judgments based on creating equality. Organized skepticism is when all scientist discoveries can be questioned and re-test. Communalism is the discovery belongs to the scientist society and will be shared in the scientist society. Disinterestedness is when a scientist must look for the truth not individual gain. Counter norms, if the research has a controversial or not well defined the research will be judged by mental state Realities of research include fraud, when researchers fake or tamper their results. Competition is the desire to obtain fame and money causes scientists to block their information that way no one can copy their experiment. This causes rushed research. Matthew effect is when the credit of the experiment goes to the most famous member instead of the group. Conflictive views include different theories on reality are used in some experiments that alter the method and ideas.

Mass media is the method to communicate that reaches multiple individuals. Writing and paper was used as mass media by the Sumerians with writing, Egyptians with papyrus. The printing press in Europe was invented in 1400AD. The industrial age multiplied the speed of the printing press and soon after the news paper, radios, and movies. Computer and information society, the invention of the internet caused the creation of digital society that exchanges information and social economic activities. Mass media in USA includes the print media which are news papers books and magazines Audio includes sound records, and radio. Visual media like movies, television, CD’s, and videocassettes. Online media is anything that is found online. Convergence is when areas with “media convergence” that is where to areas of media collide and combine. Functionalist perspective is that society runs smoother because individuals know what is happening. Conflict perspective is that the mass media distracts individuals with merchandise reducing the possibility that individuals notice and do something about the inequality. Knowledge-gap is caused by the economic difference this is know known as digital divide. Children have access to violence now. They also have less contact with others. And there is a decrease in social capital. The power of the media includes brain washing, and it can create spiral of silence, were a group silences those with different opinions. Gatekeepers that select only a part of the information to be released.

As we can see both science and mass media have changed over the past centuries. Mass media is very important in developed countries, as well as in some developing countries. Science keeps discovering knew things and improving. And because of this the media can grow too.

Chapter 14: Education and Religion

Education is very important for a society to become powerful. In dictatorships, the fist thing dictators do is get rid of books and literature in order to make stupid the people. For if the people can not think critically,

then they will agree with everything the leader says and does. Like in the book 1984 by George Orwell, the people listened to everything the Party did even though the Party was wrong. Religion is important for each society has a certain common religion, unless it is changed and people divert from the main society.

Education consists of the roles and norms that ensure the transmission of knowledge, values, and patterns of behavior from one generation to the next. Formal education, which involves instruction by specially trained teachers who folschooling. Functionalist sociologists believe that the functions performed by education work to maintain the stability and smooth operation of society. The basic function of education is to teach children the knowledge and skills they will need in the adult world. For societies to survive over time, they must pass on the core values of their culture to following generations. Functionalist sociologists also believe that education serves to produce a society of individuals who share a common national identity. All societies must have some system for identifying and training the young people who will do the important work of society in the future. Hidden curriculum is used to describe schools' transmission of cultural goals that are not openly acknowledged. Tracking involves the assignment of students ti different types of educational programs, such as general studies, vocational training, and college-preparatory studies. Most Americans have long believed that education is the key to social mobility. Interactionist sociologists seek to explain social phenomena in terms of the interaction among the individuals involved. To explain educational achievement they look at the interaction that takes place among students and teachers. Americans have always had a great deal of faith in the institution of education. In 1983 a report was made about the American education system, and in the report, it detailed a sharp decline in the level of quality of American education. Charter schools are funded with public money but are privately operated and run. With school choice parents may receive a voucher equal to the amount their state spends on education foe their children. Homeschooling is a system in which a child's main education is undertaken by parents at home. Most schools have adopted zero tolerance policies, which involve set punishments. Bilingual education is a system in which non-English-speaking students are taught in their native languages until they are proficient enough in English to attend regular classes.

low officially recognized policies, is called

The sacred is anything that is considered to be part of the supernatural world and that inspires awe, respect, and reverence. The profane is anything considered to be part of the ordinary world and thus, commonplace and familiar. Religion may be defined as a system of poles and norms that is organized around the sacred realm and that binds people together in social groups. According to sociologists, religion is a social creation. One of the most important functions of religion is that it encourages social cohesion, which is the strengthening of bonds among people. Religion also serves as a powerful agent of social control, encouraging conformity to the norms of society. A third function of religion is to provide emotional support for people during difficult times. A ritual may be defined as an established pattern of behavior through which a group of believers experiences the sacred. Animism is a belief that spirits actively influence human life. In shamanism it is believed that spirits communicated only with one person in the group. Totemism involves a belief in kinship between humans and animals or natural objects. Theism is the belief in a god or gods. Monotheism is the belief in one god. Polytheism refers to the belief in a number of gods. Ethicalism is based on the idea that moral principles have a sacred quality. An ecclesia is a type of religious organization is which most people in the society are members by virtue of their birth. A domination is a well-established religious organization in which a substantial number of the population are members. A sect is a relatively small religious organization that typically has split off from a denomination because of differences concerning beliefs. A cult is a new religion whose beliefs and practices differ markedly from those of the society's major religions. The United States has long been a haven for religious freedom. Although 90 percent of Americans say that they believe in God, only about 66 percent are affiliated with some religious organization. Sociologists generally find it hard to measure religiosity, or the depth of people's religious feelings and how the translate these feelings into behavior. Religion has become more secular or more like the world than a religion. In recent years, fundamentalist Christians have organized to exert political influence in the United States.

As seen education and religion are very important to society. It is very essential for every society to have an educational system and a religion of some sort. The reason why this is so, is so the society can grow with education and the religion to keep order.

Chapter 12: Gender, Age, and Health

In what ways to men and women differ? Some of the ways would be based off of biological features. However there are others ways that women and men differ mainly by the way each gender treats the other gender. Men have a tendency to treat women as lesser human beings because they are women.

Gender comprises the behavioral and psychological traits considered appropriate for men and women. The specific behaviors and attitudes that a society establishes for men and women are called gender roles. Gender identity is the awareness of being masculine or feminine as those traits are defined by culture. Most societies follow a division of labor similar to the one mentioned previously. Individuals learn appropriate gender-role behavior through socialization. In time, the power relationship between men and women developed into a patriarchy. Sexism is the belief that one sex is by nature superior to the other. In America, there was a women's movement which held that the sexes were socially, politically, and economically equal. The most important reform during the women's movement was suffrage or the right to vote. During this movement, women wanted the chance to get a higher education. The wage gap is the level of woman's income relative to that of men, which changed very little. The glass ceiling is the invisible barrier that prevents women from gaining upper-level positions in business. Working wives work a second shift which consists of working in the house as mother, cleaner, etc. There is also a political gender gap in the United States, women vote more but men dominate the political arena. 

Agism is the belief that one age category is by nature superior to another age category. By the year 2050, one in every five Americans will be elderly, this phenomenon is referred to by sociologists as the “graying of America”. During the 1960's, approximately 76 million children were born during this time period known as he baby-boom generation. Dependency ratio is the number of workers for each person receiving Social Security benefits. Medicare is the government-sponsored health-insurance plan for elderly Americans and Americans wit disabilities. Medicaid is the state and federally funded health-insurance program for low-income individuals. Some people claim that government transfer payments like Social Security have made older Americans financially secure at the expense of younger generations. In addition to dealing with their health problems, Americans with disabilities have to deal with prejudice and discrimination. The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990 has the potential to bring the most sweeping changes in the lives of people with disabilities. It helps people with disabilities in the areas of employment, public services, public accommodations, and telecommunications.

The United States spends a higher percentage of its gross domestic product (GDP) on health care than any other country in the world. Advances in medical technology have also affected health-care costs. One popular method of controlling health expenditures is the use of alternative health-insurance plans called managed care. In spite of the oversupply of doctors, access to health car is a problem for many Americans. One of the major factors affecting access to health care is the distribution of physicians, both geographically and within the medical profession. Poor people are less likely than wealthy Americas to receive adequate medical care. The majority of medical costs in the United States are covered by private or public insurance. Critics note that the Medicare-Medicaid system has created very uneven health-care delivery. Alternative medicine includes treating illness with unconventional methods such as acupuncture, acupressure, biofeedback, massage, medication, yoga, herbal remedies, and relaxation techniques, which has interested Americans. Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) is a disease that attacks the immune system, leaving a person vulnerable to a host of deadly infections. Many AIDS activists claim the the United States government has not responded adequately to the AIDS crisis. However, the United States government has made major efforts to combat this disease in recent years.
Diseases can be spread really easily, but now with advancing technology, they are being eliminated just as fast. Gender inequality has gotten better in the past years. And Americans have given more opportunities to women. Age has also become a big way of receiving benefits in the USA. 

Chapter 11: The Family

Family is a very important part of society. Any good society is based off of a good family. Societies that do not have strong families, do not have strong societies. This is because families provide economic resources when a person is a child and then later in life family becomes a way to gain economic advice. Family also provides emotions not found elsewhere, and for that reason, family is so important.

A family is a group of people who are related by marriage, blood, or adoption and who often live together and share economic resources. A nuclear family consists of one or both parents and their children. An individual's family of orientation is the nuclear family into which the person is born or adopted. When an individual marries, the new nuclear family is now a family of procreation. An extended family consists of two or more generations. Kinship refers to a network of people who are related by marriage, birth, or adoption. Sociologists use the term marriage as the set of norms that establishes and characterizes the relationship between married individuals. The marriage of one man to one woman is called monogamy. Marriage with multiple partners is called polygamy. Polygyny is when a man is permitted to marry more than one woman at a time. Polyandry is when a woman is permitted ti marry one man at a time. When a newly married couple lives or is expected to live with or near the husband's parents, it is called patrilocality. When the newly wedded couple lives or is expected to live with or near the wife's parents, it is called matrilocality. Bilocality allows the newly married couple to choose whether they will live near the husband's or the wife's parents. Patrilineal descent is when property is passed from father to son. Matrilineal descent is when property is passed from mother to daughter. In bilateral descent property can be inherited from either side of the family. A family may be a patriarchy, where the father holds most of the authority. It may be a matriarchy in which the mother holds most of the authority. Or it could be eaglitarian where the mother and father share authority. An incest taboo is a norm forbidding sexual relations or marriage between certain relatives. To survive, societies must replace members who die or move away, and so reproduce. Children must be taught the ways if the society they are born into. The family acts as an economic and emotional security system.

Americans usually marry individuals who have social characteristics similar to their own , this is called homogamy. Heterogamy is marriage between individuals who have different social characteristics. Family violence is considered the most-devastating family disruption. Another type of family disruption is divorce. Duel-earner families are families in which both husband and wife have jobs. When children leave home, the parents are usually left with an “empty nest” and feel sad. In the USA, marriage is often delayed and put off until later years. Delayed childbearing is also common in the USA. The sandwich generation are couples that are caught between the needs of their children and those of their parents. The choice to remain childless is called voluntary childlessness, which happens to be a trend in the USA. Another trend in American families is an increase in the number of duel-earner marriages. And yet another trend are one-parent families. And still, another trend is remarriage.

As we can see family is very important to societies, and for that reason a society can grow with the help of family. In the USA, families have been recently going through some major changes and this could be a reason why the USA is not as strong and powerful as it once was. If the families in the USA grew stronger, perhaps the country/society can grow stronger as well.  

Chapter 10: Racial and Ethnic Relations

Race an ethnicity are two very separate things. Both will be described in more detail below, along with discrimination and prejudice. People today need to learn that race should not be the first thing people see when they meet someone new. People need to learn to stop discriminating others. Even though we seem to know that it is wrong to discriminate and to judge others, we still do it.

A race is a category of people who share inherited physical characteristics and whom others see as being a distinct group. The set of cultural characteristics that distinguishes one group from another group is called ethnicity. People who share a common sense of identity are known as an ethnic group. A minority group is a group of peo

ple who, because of their physical characteristics or cultural practices, are singled out and unequally treated.

Discrimination is the denial of equal treatment to individuals based on their group membership. Prejudice is an unsupported generalization about a category of people. Legal discrimination is upheld by law. Institutionalized discrimination is an outgrowth of the structure of a society. A steroptype is an over simplified, exaggerated, or unfavorable generalization about a group of people. A self-fulfilling prophecy is a prediction that results in behavior that makes the prediction come true. Racism is the belief that one's own race or ethnic group is better than another. The sociological explanation of discrimination and prejudice focuses on the social environment. Some people explain discrimination and prejudice by psychological explanations. The practice of placing the blame for one's troubles in an innocent individual or group is called scapegoating. According to economic explanations, prejudice and discrimination arise out of competition for scarce resources. Cultural pluralism allows each group within society to keep its unique cultural identity. The blending of culturally distinct groups into a single group with common culture and identity is called assimilation. Legal protection is when the law protects the minority group. Policies that physically separate a minority group from the dominant group are referred to as segregation. De jure segregation is based on laws. Segregation based on informal norms is called de facto segregation. Subjugation is the maintaining if control over a group through force. Slavery is the ownership of one person by another. Population transfer is when the dominant part of society relocates the minority group to another area. When the goal of extermination is the intentional destruction of the entire targeted population, it is referred to as genocide. Ethnic cleansing involves removing a group from a particular area through terror, expulsion, and mass murder.

African Americans are one of the minority groups in the United States. They compromise more than 12 percent of the population. Hispanics are another minority group. The 2000 census shows that the United States us home to more than 35 million Hispanics. Asian Americans are yet another minority group in the United States. Also by the 2000 census, the figure of 7 million Asian Americans grew to 10 million. American Indians are still, another minority group, in the United States. In 2000 the American Indian population was approximately 2.5 million. White ethnics are the minority group composed of people from Ireland, Italy, France, Poland, and Greece. Today there are many white ethnics but not as many as the other minority groups.

As we can see, race and ethnicity are two different things. Discrimination is very bad, along with prejudice. We can see that the United States contains many different minority groups, some of which are discriminated. As much as we know it is wrong, we still discriminate, as said before.